According to the book, Red, White, and Black: Rescuing American History from Revisionists and Race Hustlers, The history of slavery in America “does not empirically seem to be the cause of most modern problems in the black community.”49
Lord Acton wrote, “The law of nature, they said, is superior to the written law, and slavery contradicts the law of nature. Men have no right to do what they please with their own, or to make profit out of another’s loss.”50
Slavery was recognized as a sin against the laws of nature. Unfortunately, slavery’s history reaches as far back into history as the historian’s eye can recognize. In fact, the practice of the enslavement of fellow human beings is a practice that goes back all the way to the very beginning of world history.
The first city-state, Mesopotamia, used enemies captured in war to work as slaves in their civilization. The Ancient Egyptians have revealed in temple art that they also used persons captured in battle as slaves, depicting in their art expeditions up the Nile River put together specifically for the purpose of capturing slaves. Athens used as many as 30,000 slaves in its silver mines, and after Christ the Roman government used military campaigns to capture slaves by the thousands. Around 500 A.D. the Anglo-Saxons enslaved native Britons after they invaded England, and about 500 years later slavery had become a normal practice in England’s rural, agricultural economy, as destitute workers placed themselves and their families in a form of debt bondage to wealthy landowners. During the Middle Ages the Black Plague wiped out the local labor market in Europe, so slaves poured in from all over the continent, and from the Middle East and North Africa. In 1444, Portuguese slave traders began to ship African slaves into Europe by sea, establishing what would eventually be known as the Atlantic Slave Trade. In the early 1500s the Spanish brought the first African slaves to settlements in what would become the United States. In 1641 Massachusetts became the first British Colony to legalize slavery.51
Slavery has also existed throughout history among the New World’s native tribes, among the tribes in Africa, throughout Europe and Asia, and slavery is an accepted institution that to this day is still in use in the Islamic World.
Estimated
at about 2500 B.C., “Early kings and queens of the city of Ur were buried in
large pits filled with…treasures…[and] the bodies of dozens of guards and
servants, who had taken poison and died to be with their rulers.”52
Slavery existed in the Babylonian Era, among the Hittites, and in Egypt. The story of Moses includes an episode in history where the Israelites served as slaves in the Egyptian Empire, and Moses had been prepared by God to lead His people out of Egypt so that they may journey to the Promised Land.
Exodus, Chapter 9, Verse 1: “Then the LORD said unto Moses, Go in unto Pharaoh, and tell him, Thus saith the LORD God of the Hebrews, Let my people go, that they may serve me.”
“Moses led 600,000 people out of Egypt in the middle of the night. God did not lead Moses and the Israelites through enemy land. Rather He led them through the desert toward the Red Sea as they journeyed to the Promised Land. God led His people with a pillar of clouds during the day, and a pillar of fire at night. Following these incredible sights would remind them that God was always with them, guiding them each step of the way on their journey to the Promised Land.”53
In Ancient Greece, while the men were out to fight wars, or absent from the home to carry out the business of the community, “women stayed at home. They ran the household, looked after the children, and supervised the slaves.”54
The infancy of the abolition period began in the late 1700s. The movement grew gradually, encompassing the world. European country after European country abolished slavery during the 1800s, and eventually the movement led to the abolition of slavery in the United States with the Thirteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution (ratified December 6, 1865).55
The presence of the institution of slavery, unfortunately, is a constant throughout history, touching all parts of the globe at one time or another. Every peoples’ ancestors have likely been at one point slave owners and members of the enslaved during their existence while residents of the pages of the long history of the world. Somewhere in the ancestry of each and every one of us resides the bloodlust of conquerors and the tragedies of the conquered. A clash of civilizations is a common occurrence in history. It is in our nature, it seems, to war with each other when our societies clash on the world stage. Typically, during those clashes, the emergence of slavery rears up over and over again. Periods of slavery in all civilizations are standard realities of history. I am not condoning such actions, I am simply saying that we as humans naturally, due to our flawed sinful nature, participate, and even encourage, such atrocities to transpire. History is dotted repeatedly with wars, bondage, and enslavement. Unfortunately, humanity seems to be real talented in the art of misery. Thankfully, Christ was born and sacrificed on a cross on Calvary so that we may have Salvation. His is the promise of Eternal Life. Liberty from sin. A part of our lives that promises forgiveness, and a promise of the kind of hope that no man or government could ever provide.
Like any market filled with highly demanded products, with slavery there needs to be buyers, and suppliers. In the United States, while it is true a demand for slaves existed and those expectations for slaves were being fulfilled by the slave trade, one wonders why the folks out there who try to demonize the American System because of the country’s brush with slavery during a particular period of its history ignore the fact that, as my dad used to say, “it takes two to tango.”
During the Atlantic Slave Trade the Europeans weren’t the only ones operating slaver operations. Muslim countries had slaves, and in fact the Barbary Wars fought between the United States and the Barbary States (Jefferson was President during the First Barbary War, James Madison resided in the White House during the second war with the “musselmen” or “Mahometans” of that era) were largely over the tributes the Islamic countries demanded. The Muslim expectation of tolls to be paid in order to operate in sections of the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea that their sea-going vessels patrolled were essentially what gangs in today’s inner-cities would call “protection money.” Pay the tribute, and the percentage chance of preventing being attacked by Muslim vessels, and preventing your sailors from being apprehended and used as slaves by the followers of Muhammad on foreign shores or on Muslim vessels increased; slightly.
Thomas Jefferson actually owned a Koran (the Muslim religion’s holy book/may also be spelled Qur’an) of which he purchased originally at the age of twenty-two, eleven years before he penned the Declaration of Independence.55b Later, as a statesman, Jefferson became critical of Islam, recognizing Islam could not be trusted as a political entity, and that the governments claiming to be a part of the Muslim caliphate were particularly talented in providing untruths on the world stage. Nonetheless, as a proponent of liberty, despite his disdain for the Islamic faith, he recognized that Muslims may be future citizens of the United States even though the American System was established on a foundation of Christianity.55c
At the time of the birth of the United States as a country all of the Muslims in the country were slaves, comprising of somewhere between 15% and 30% of the overall number of slaves in America. Immigration from Islamic-majority countries did not begin until the late nineteenth century.55d
The tribes of Africa, like much of the non-African world, were also practicing slavery among themselves. It was those Africans who sold their fellow Africans into slavery when the European slave ships arrived on the African Coast.
There can be no market if there are no sellers of the product in demand. If there is no supply, no market can exist.
The history of slavery, no doubt a concern to the Framers of the American System of Government through the United States Constitution, especially since a part of that history was playing out in the United States as they worked to establish a foundation of freedom and equality, did not stop them from carrying out their endeavor. Slavery was a reality that they, at the time, could do little to stop. Some of the Founding Fathers, despite their abhorrence of the institution of slavery, owned slaves themselves.
Though Thomas Jefferson owned slaves, he largely inherited them, and though he was “land-rich,” the laws of Virginia made it impossible for Jefferson to free any of his slaves. He simply did not have the money to do so.
George Mason, though he attended the Constitutional Convention until the final day, refused to sign the document along with three others, Elbridge Gerry and Mason’s fellow Virginian, Edmund Randolph. All three distrusted the creation of a large central government, especially without a bill of rights. Mason, rather than verbalize his reasons for not signing the document, wrote his reasons down. Failure to abolish slavery was among those reasons.
“We ought to attend to the rights of every class of the people…provide no less carefully for the…happiness of the lowest than of the highest orders of citizens,” he said at one point during the convention.56
Mason was not the only American willing to stand firm against slavery. “The first slaves that arrived in the Massachusetts Colony set up by the Christian Pilgrims and Puritans” is a story not often told. “When that slave ship arrived in Massachusetts, the ship’s officers were arrested and imprisoned and the kidnapped slaves were returned to Africa at the Colony’s expense.”57
As a colony, Georgia originally rejected slavery. The arguments were largely based on economic and military reasoning. To the south the Spanish were willing to give freedom and an enlistment in their military to any slave that escaped from the British Colonies and made it to Florida. “Between 1735 and 1750 Georgia was the only British American colony to attempt to prohibit Black slavery as a matter of public policy. The decision to ban slavery was made by the founders of Georgia, the Trustees…They banned slavery in Georgia because it was inconsistent with their social and economic intentions…Some settlers began to grumble that they would never make money unless they were allowed to employ enslaved Africans. Many South Carolinians, who wanted to expand their planting interests into Georgia, encouraged this line of thinking…In 1735, two years after the first settlers arrived, the House of Commons passed legislation prohibiting slavery in Georgia…Georgians’ campaign to overturn the parliamentary ban on slavery was soon under way and grew in intensity during the late 1730s…supporters bombarded the Trustees with letters and petitions demanding that slavery be permitted in Georgia. They also wrote pamphlets in which they set out their case in more detail…As the growing wealth of South Carolina’s rice economy demonstrated, enslaved workers were far more profitable than any other form of labor available to the colonists…The situation changed dramatically in 1742 when Oglethorpe defeated the Spanish at the Battle of Bloody Marsh and returned to England. The military arguments in favor of prohibiting slavery were no longer tenable…a growing number of settlers became more willing to ignore the ban on slavery.
By the mid-1740s the Trustees realized that excluding slavery was rapidly becoming a lost cause... there was little to prevent the Georgia settlers, with the connivance of South Carolina sympathizers, from illicitly importing enslaved Africans primarily through the Augusta area. The Trustees, bowing to the inevitable, agreed that the ban on slavery be overturned but only after they had consulted their officials in Georgia about the conditions under which slavery would be permitted. In opposition to South Carolina’s slave code, the Trustees wished to ensure a smaller ratio of Blacks to whites in Georgia. These consultations were completed by 1750. The Trustees asked the House of Commons to replace the Act of 1735 with one that would permit slavery in Georgia as of January 1, 1751. The legislation they recommended was adopted…
“Between 1750 and 1775 Georgia’s enslaved population grew in size from less than 500 to approximately 18,000 people. Beginning in the mid-1760s, Georgia began to import captive workers directly from Africa…”58
While the history of slavery definitely drove through the heart of America’s History, the narrative that the United States was some kind of major player in the overall scheme of slavery is not true.
America's participation in slavery was actually a small part of the bigger picture. Slavery, however, was a worldwide phenomenon.
Henry Louis Gates, Jr. at PBS,59 after utilizing a Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade database at slavevoyages.org60 of which he calls the “gold standard” when it comes to the field of the study of the slave trade, recognized that America played a minor role in the slave trade. While the numbers at slavevoyages.org are considered “estimates”, Gates states the database is the best out there in terms of closeness to accuracy. So, writes Gates, according to his own manipulation of the website, “Between 1525 and 1866, in the entire history of the slave trade to the New World, according to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, 12.5 million Africans were shipped to the New World. 10.7 million survived the dreaded Middle Passage, disembarking in North America, the Caribbean and South America. And how many of these 10.7 million Africans were shipped directly to North America? Only about 388,000. That’s right: a tiny percentage.”
In other words, as we’ve been told, and as Mr. Gates was willing to admit, less
than 4% of the total. Small number to say the least. Interestingly,
and in defiance of the narrative being pushed by people like those behind The 1619 Project, that number is still twice the
size it truly should be. The number of slaves who were legally imported
into the United States while the United States was officially a country is a
much different number.
Before I found Mr. Gates at PBS I had also stumbled upon a website called
"statista".61
Two charts on that website caught my eye.
The first one62 shows a chart of The
Countries Most Active in the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. While the United
States is near the bottom, I believe the 377,613 number provided is false.
America, as I referred to earlier, was not a country until 1776, so if you wish
to be purely honest about the U.S.'s participation in the slave trade, her
colonial years should be considered as part of the United Kingdom's
participation in the slave trade. After all, English settlers were the ones who
began the slave trade here, with support from the British Government, and as
the American concept of liberty began to percolate the Founding Fathers blamed
Britain for the presence of slaves in America, and blamed the British Empire
for the continuation of slavery as the years passed. In short, the mindset of
the English who came here was much different from the mindset of the early
Americans when it came to slavery. Thomas Jefferson referred to slavery
in the original draft of the Declaration of Independence63 by
not only stating that the liberty-minded colonists of his time considered those
enslaved to be MEN as they themselves were, but that the Commonwealth of
Virginia at one point had requested to abolish slavery inside its colonial
borders, and the British Parliament had rejected the request.
The second chart at statista64
shows how many slaves were sent to each region in the New World and Europe
during the time period of 1514-1866, this time showing a number 307,000 going
to the U.S. (which contradicts the 377,613 number from the previous chart). Something I took notice of on this particular
page is that the article opens with the 1619 Project claim that in August of
1619 the first ship with enslaved Africans arrived in what was then the colony
of Virginia. However, the database Gates
at PBS mentioned, which turns out to also be the source for Katharina Buchholz
and her charts at statista, to see if
I could find out how many slaves was estimated to have arrived in the New World
in 1619 as we are being told.
Using the slave trade database65 I left only the U.S. box
check-marked, then set the years from 1501 to 1625. According to the
database there were zero slave arrivals in the U.S. portion of North America
during that time period.
The “gold standard” says zero slaves arrived in 1619. Could the researchers attached to that database know what we’ve already learned in our own research; that no persons were bought as slaves after departing from the decks of The White Lion and onto the sands of that Virginia shore. Each and every one of those Africans on board the arriving ship near Jamestown in 1619 became indentured servants.
Then I checked the following spans of years and got the following numbers:
1501-1775: 126,012
1776-1807: 166,162
1808-1866: 13,151
As a note, the number is zero 1822-1823, 1825-1826, 1828, 1830-1857, 1859.
The first period (1501-1775) was during the time that the English Colonies were under British Rule. The slave trade at that point was administered by Great Britain, therefore it would not be reasonable to count those numbers toward U.S. involvement in slavery.
The second period was from the Declaration of Independence in 1776 to 1807 which is the last year the importation of slaves into the U.S. was legal. An act by Congress to outlaw the Atlantic Slave Trade into the States as authorized by Article I, Section 9 of the U.S. Constitution was passed and signed by President Jefferson in March of 1807, with an effective date of January 1, 1808.66 After 1776, and prior to the Act that went into effect in 1808 the importation of slaves into the United States was legal and allowed by the U.S. Government, so the number that corresponds with that time period should count as a part of the overall number regarding U.S. involvement in the slave trade from Africa.
The third period (1808-1866) spanned a time in which the importation of slaves was at its lowest ever, with a number of years at zero. It was also during a time in which it was illegal to import slaves into the United States, so any slaves brought into the United States during that time-span should not be viewed as evidence the United States participated in the slave trade. The participation in the importation of slaves into the United States was not sanctioned by the U.S. Government during that time period; therefore, the activity was being committed by outlaws.
When it came to people who were acting outside the law this would include the Jekyll Island landing of a slave ship in 1858.67 That Georgia disembarkment of slaves is also used by deconstructionists to bolster their anti-American argument, but the reality is that the last slave ship to arrive in America was an illegal port call. The arrival of The Wanderer also followed a long spell of years in which no slaves had been brought into the United States, even in the case of smuggling. In their article about the arrival of The Wanderer in Georgia, it states that 409 slaves were dumped off on Jekyll Island.68 The database at slavevoyages.com states only 350 slaves entered the United States in 1858.69 Interesting how the mainstream media journalist at the Atlanta Journal-Constitution newspaper jacked the number up a bit. Is there a narrative they are trying to support with exaggerated numbers?
Based on the numbers provided, the actual number of slaves imported into the United States legally based on U.S. law allowing it while the U.S. was a country, then, is 166,162; roughly 2% of the entire number of slaves that came to the New World from Africa.
So
how is it that the United States is now being considered as such a major player
in the overall scheme of the Atlantic Slave Trade?
The game with numbers gets even more interesting when we look at how widespread slavery failed to be in the United States, despite the fact that Cultural Marxists like Nikole Hannah-Jones want you to believe it was a raging epidemic. According to the numbers available, less than 5% of southern white free persons owned slaves, and overall in the United States less than 1.5% across the entire United States owned slaves.70
“Well over 90 percent of enslaved Africans were imported into the Caribbean and South America…Yet by 1825, the US population included about one quarter of the people of African descent in the New World. American plantations were dwarfed by those in the West Indies. In the Caribbean, many plantations held 150 slaves or more. In the American South, only one slaveholder held as many as a thousand slaves, and just 125 had over 250 slaves.
“In the Caribbean, Dutch Guiana, and Brazil, the slave death rate was so high and the birth rate so low that they could not sustain their population without importations from Africa. Rates of natural decrease ran as high as 5 percent a year. While the death rate of US slaves was about the same as that of Jamaican slaves, the fertility rate was more than 80 percent higher in the United States.”71
The survivability of slaves in the United States was much higher than those who were enslaved in other parts of the world. As a result, “US slaves were more generations removed from Africa than those in the Caribbean. In the nineteenth century, the majority of slaves in the British Caribbean and Brazil were born in Africa. In contrast, by 1850, most US slaves were third-, fourth-, or fifth-generation Americans.”72
“Slavery in the US was distinctive in the near balance of the sexes and the ability of the slave population to increase its numbers by natural reproduction. Unlike any other slave society, the US had a high and sustained natural increase in the slave population for a more than a century and a half.”73
Why was the birthrate in the United States for slaves so much higher than other parts of the New World?
As one reads “A Diary from Dixie” by Mary Boykin Chesnut74, one recognizes that, if her account is accurate and if other plantations were similar to her family’s plantation, the living conditions and services provided for the slaves in the United States were better than in any other country. In other countries the majority of slaves were beaten to death, or were in such poor health from the poor living conditions provided that they were unable to reproduce. Contrary to the narrative being presented, slaves in America lived better than most free people in other parts of the world; and according to Mrs. Chesnut, they were armed, free to hunt if they so desired, and they were trusted enough to be left with the women of the plantation.
Of course, this would not be the case everywhere. There is no doubt that evil men with evil minds acted exactly as the deconstruction narrative suggests. In some places, as portrayed by the race-baiters, slaves were whipped. But, that was not the case everywhere. On plantations like that of the Chesnut’s the most commonly dealt punishment for bad behavior was being not allowed to participate in the Saturday Night Dance.
The message we are being told, this idea that the United States was somehow an evil leader in the sin of slavery is a smoke and mirrors show. An exaggeration. A case of sleight of hand to get you to not see the truth. Cultural Marxism, I'm afraid, at its worst.
As explained, the United States was a minor player in the overall game of slavery. And, inside the United States, slavery was not as widespread as advertised by people like Nikole Hannah-Jones.
After the end of one of my Constitution Classes I asked one of the students, of whom I was conversing with in the parking lot, “What percentage of free whites in the southern states owned slaves right before the beginning of the War Between the States?”
“Oh,” said Mary, “it’s got to be a high number. Seventy-five percent?”
I think that most Americans share Mary’s thinking. We’ve been convinced that the United States was a leader in slavery, despite the fact that we were minor players in the overall scheme of things. And, within our country the disease of slavery was not as widespread as most Americans have been led to believe.
“According to the 1860 census a miniscule number of whites owned slaves. Eight million whites lived in the South, but of these, fewer than 325,000 owned slaves. What this means is that only 1.4 percent of the total white population consisted of slave owners, and only 4.8 percent of the white Southern population did so.”75
While I am not questioning that racism ran rampant in the United States, based on the numbers I am not convinced that slavery had much longer to survive in the United States upon the approach of the War Between the States. The Founding Fathers believed that slavery would be abolished state by state within their lifetimes. That didn’t happen. But, I believe slavery was going to be abolished in the United States within 15 years of the 1860 census, not because of the abolition movement, or because a bunch of people suddenly had a change of heart. The invention of the cotton gin76 in the 1790s, and its widespread use during the early part of the nineteenth century, began a cycle of innovation that would eventually enable machines, and employees running those machines, to replace the need for slaves in the fields, and eventually in the factories and the warehouses. In short, slavery was in the process of becoming obsolete through the sheer forces of economics and innovation.
The numbers regarding how many white slavers there were in 1860 partly reveals that reality.
What is even more amazing is the fact that another set of numbers had skyrocketed off the charts.
In 1860 “there were 4.5 million blacks living in America, and 500,000 blacks in the South. Over half of these—261,988—were freed men. In the city of New Orleans alone, more than 3,000 blacks owned slaves. That is, 28 percent of the free black population consisted of slave holders.”77
One wonders what the motivation for slaveholding by free blacks was.
“In 1830, the Census Bureau notes that free blacks owned more than 10,000 slaves in the states of Louisiana, Maryland, Virginia, and South Carolina…Large numbers of free Blacks owned black slaves in numbers disproportionate to their representation in society.”78
“In some cities during some decades in the 19th century, more than 75 percent of the free black population was comprised of slave holders, and some of these black masters owned property in slaves that rivaled that of some of their wealthiest white counterparts while far exceeding that of most slave owners. The widow C. Richards and her son, to cite the most notable example, owned 152 slaves.”79
The amazing facts get more amazing, yet…
“For four decades (1630-1670), those Africans who became freedmen owned white indentured servants. The majority of urban black slave owners were women. Virtually all of the black slave masters were mulattoes who not only enslaved their darker brethren, but refused to marry or even attend church with freed men of darker hue.”80
The numbers The 1619 Project throws around about misogyny and racism seems to apply more to free blacks who owned slaves, rather than their white redneck counterparts.
Worldwide and through the history of slavery we must also recognize another queer realization.
“Europeans didn’t get involved with African slavery until the 15th century—very late in the game, historically speaking. For at least the preceding 800-900 years, Arab Muslims had been trafficking in African slaves all…with the cooperation of African leaders who had been enslaving their fellow Africans for even longer than this.”81
Some African slave holders, as the black American thinker Thomas Sowell has noted as well, used their slaves as human sacrifices in religious rituals.82
“In his Black Rednecks, White Liberals, in a chapter titled, ‘The Real History of Slavery,’ Sowell’s commentary on the brutality of Arabic Muslims’ treatment of African slaves is particularly difficult to digest. Muslims, he says, ‘marched vast numbers of human beings from their homes [in Africa] where they had been captured to the places where they would be sold, hundreds of miles away, often spending months crossing the burning sands of the Sahara…The death toll on these marches exceeded even the horrific toll on packed slave ships crossing the Atlantic.”83
When it came to Muslim slavery, however, Africans weren’t the only targets. As I explained earlier, American sailors were being captured and enslaved by Islamic countries, as well as “millions of white Europeans.”84
Slavery of white people was how the whole thing started, to be honest. “After all…the…word ‘slave’ derives from the experience of mass enslavement suffered by the Slavs, i.e. white people.”85
- Robert L. Woodson, Sr. (ed.), Red, White, and Black: Rescuing
American History from Revisionists and Race Hustlers, (New York:
Emancipation Books, 2021), 37
- John Emerich Edward Dalberg-Acton (First Baron
Acton), Essays on Freedom and Power,
(Boston: The Beacon Press, 1949), 53
- Kevin Bales, New Slavery: A Reference Handbook,(Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2004),
55-68
- Jane Chisholm (ed.), The Usborne Encyclopedia of World History, (Tulsa: EDC
Publishing, 2002), 113
- John R. Cross, “Moses Leads the People Out of
Egypt” Bible Lessons for Kidz,
2007. Accessed March 16, 2022. https://bible.org/seriespage/5-moses-leads-people-out-egypt-exodus-14
- Jane Chisholm (ed.), The Usborne Encyclopedia of World History, (Tulsa: EDC
Publishing, 2002), 156
- The
Constitution of the United States with index, and The Declaration of
Independence (New York: National Center for Constitutional
Studies, 2021), 25
55b. Anna Burkes, “Qur'an”
The Thomas Jefferson Encyclopedia,
March 20, 2009. Accessed
June
4, 2022. https://www.monticello.org/site/research-and-collections/quran
55c. Denise A.
Spellberg, Thomas Jefferson’s Qur’an
(New York: Knopf Doubleday
Publishing
Group, 2013)
55d. Khaled A. Beydoun,
African Slaves Were the 1st to Celebrate
Ramadan in America,
July
3, 2014. Accessed June 4, 2022. http://www.theroot.com/african-slaves-were-the-
1st-to-celebrate-ramadan-in-ame-1790876253
- Catherine Drinker Bowen, Miracle at Philadelphia: The Story of the Constitutional
Convention May to September 1787 (Boston: Little, Brown and Company,
1966), 47.
- David Barton, Setting the Record Straight: American History in Black & White
(Aledo, TX: WallBuilder Press, 2010), 6
- Betty Wood. "Slavery in Colonial
Georgia." New Georgia
Encyclopedia, last modified Jul 27, 2021. Accessed March 16, 2022.
https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/slavery-in-colonial-georgia/
- Henry Louis Gates, Jr. “How Many Slaves Landed
in the U.S.?” WNET/PBS, accessed
December 30, 2021. https://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/how-many-slaves-landed-in-the-us/
- “Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade – Database” Slave Voyages, accessed December
30, 2021. https://www.slavevoyages.org/voyage/database
- Katharina Buchholz, “The Countries Most Active
in the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade” Statista,
June 19, 2020. Accessed December
30, 2021. https://www.statista.com/chart/22057/countries-most-active-trans-atlantic-slave-trade/
- Ibid.
- Thomas Jefferson's "original Rough
draught" of the Declaration of Independence before it was revised by
the other members of the Committee of Five and by Congress. From: The
Papers of Thomas Jefferson. Vol. 1, 1760-1776. Ed. Julian P. Boyd.
Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950, pp 243-247
- Katharina Buchholz, “The Trans-Atlantic Slave
Trade Uprooted Millions” Statista,
June 19, 2020. Accessed December
30, 2021. https://www.statista.com/chart/19068/trans-atlantic-slave-trade-by-country-region/
- “Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade – Estimates” Slave Voyages, accessed December
30, 2021. https://www.slavevoyages.org/assessment/estimates
- History.com Editors, “Congress abolishes the
African slave trade” History/A&E
Television Networks, Original Published Date: February 9, 2010; Last
Updated: March 1, 2022. Accessed March 16, 2022. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/congress-abolishes-the-african-slave-trade
- George Mathis, “America’s Last Slave Ship
Landed in Georgia” The Atlanta Journal-Constitution,
January 31, 2017. Accessed December
30, 2021. https://www.ajc.com/blog/news-to-me/america-last-slave-ship-landed-georgia/GviXD4t3YDYO95kl3ZTw2O/
- Ibid.
- “Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade – Estimates” Slave Voyages, accessed December
30, 2021. https://www.slavevoyages.org/assessment/estimates
- Jack Kerwick, “Racially Incorrect Facts
Regarding Race and Slavery” Townhall,
July 21, 2016. Accessed March 16,
2022. https://townhall.com/columnists/jackkerwick/2016/07/21/racially-incorrect-facts-regarding-race-and-slavery-n2195701
- Steven Mintz, “Historical Context: Facts about
the Slave Trade and Slavery” The
Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, Accessed March 16,
2022. https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/teaching-resource/historical-context-facts-about-slave-trade-and-slavery
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Mary Boykin Chesnut, A Diary from Dixie, (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1905)
- Jack Kerwick, “Racially Incorrect Facts
Regarding Race and Slavery” Townhall,
July 21, 2016. Accessed March 16, 2022. https://townhall.com/columnists/jackkerwick/2016/07/21/racially-incorrect-facts-regarding-race-and-slavery-n2195701
- “Eli Whitney’s Patent for the Cotton Gin”, National Archives, Latest Update:
December 16, 2021. Accessed March
17, 2022. https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/cotton-gin-patent#background
- Jack Kerwick, “Racially Incorrect Facts
Regarding Race and Slavery” Townhall,
July 21, 2016. Accessed March 16,
2022. https://townhall.com/columnists/jackkerwick/2016/07/21/racially-incorrect-facts-regarding-race-and-slavery-n2195701
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
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